Plastics changed the world. In a little over 70 years since mass production began, the versatile material has seeped into every facet of our lives — from packaging, textiles, kitchenware and cosmetics to healthcare equipment, car parts and construction materials.

But what started as a cheap convenience has rapidly become a global crisis. Thanks to our increased reliance on plastics and lack of viable waste management, plastic-driven pollution is now so pervasive it can be found in the ocean, the air and even our bodies. This has devastating impacts — from sea creatures trapped in plastic debris, to human health risks like cancer and infertility, to increased global warming.

Countries spent the past three years trying to negotiate a Global Plastics Treaty to stem the rising tide of pollution. The latest talks, in August 2025, ended in gridlock, leaving the treaty's future uncertain. But progress doesn't have to wait: There is plenty that countries and companies can do to tackle this growing crisis while international negotiations proceed. 

How Big Is the Plastic Problem?

According to the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development's (OECD) Global Plastics Outlook, the world generates approximately 353 million metric tons of plastic waste per year — or almost a million metric tons every day. Of this, OECD found that only around 9% is recycled. Fifty percent ends up in landfills, and 19% is incinerated. The rest of the world's plastic waste (22%, or 82 million metric tons per year) ends up in insecure dumpsites, is burned in open pits or leaks into the environment.

And that only accounts for visible waste. Plastics also emit micro- and nanoplastics, chemicals and climate pollution at every step of their lifecycle — most of which are unaccounted for.

Types of Plastic Debris

Macroplastics are larger than 5 millimeters and account for most plastic pollution. Some are more harmful than others; for example, abandoned and discarded fishing gear ("ghost gear") can easily entangle marine animals, and plastic bags can be eaten by turtles mistaking them for jellyfish. Over time, macroplastics break down into increasingly smaller pieces called microplastics.

Microplastics are smaller than 5 millimeters. These include "primary microplastics" intentionally manufactured in a small size (such as plastic beads or pellets), and "secondary microplastics" shed from larger plastic debris. Microplastics are pervasive in food, air and water, and have been found in human and animal tissue. An estimated 10-40 million metric tons enter the environment per year.

Nanoplastics are less than 1 micrometer (about 1/8th of the diameter of a red blood cell) and represent the final stage of plastic fragmentation. Because of their size, nanoplastics can penetrate cell membranes, potentially interfering with biological processes at a molecular level. Scientists are still working to understand the full extent of their impact, but studies indicate they pose significant risks to both environmental and human health.

Much of the plastic pollution that ends up in the environment enters freshwater and marine ecosystems. Once there, it can be carried long distances by rivers and ocean currents to accumulate in the high seas. The notorious Great Pacific Garbage Patch, a concentration of marine debris in the North Pacific, now spans roughly 1.6 million square kilometers (617,663 square miles) — an area three times the size of France. Meanwhile, micro- and nanoplastics and plastic-driven chemicals are increasingly showing up in ecosystems and our bodies.

All of this pollution adds to the nearly 5 billion metric tons of plastic that has already accumulated in landfills and the environment. Concerningly, both plastic consumption and waste are expected to triple by 2060, compared to 2019 levels.

Why Is Plastic So Harmful?

This isn't just a matter of spent water bottles and straws washing up on shores. Plastics pose a wide range of hazards for people, ecosystems and the climate.

Plastic contributes to climate change

Ninety-nine percent of plastics are made from fossil fuels and generate planet-warming greenhouse gas emissions throughout their lifecycles. Emissions are released when raw materials like oil, gas and coal are extracted, as well as during production, transport, use and disposal. Conventional plastics currently emit over 2.4 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide per year — equivalent to around 5% of global emissions. Sustained growth in global plastic production will continue to drive demand for fossil fuels even as other sectors of the economy decarbonize.

GHG emissions are not the only way plastics warm the planet. Micro- and nano-plastics appear to be interfering with the planet's carbon cycles. And plastic particles may be affecting Earth's "radiation budget," changing how the planet interacts with heat and light in the atmosphere and on its surface.

The full range and extent of plastics' climate impacts aren't fully understood. However, present research suggests they have a bigger climate footprint than is currently accounted for.

Plastic harms people and the environment

Plastic pollution can persist for centuries in the ocean, soil and air. There, it can break down into micro- and nanoplastics and leach chemicals with serious health risks — such as bisphenol A (BPA) and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS, or "forever chemicals") — into the environment.

Micro- and nanoplastics have been detected in nearly every part of the human body, entering through the food and drinks we consume as well as the air we breathe. One study found nearly 89% of healthy adults had microplastics in their blood, linked to increased inflammation and clotting risk. These particles can cross biological barriers like the placenta and blood-brain barrier, contributing to cardiovascular disease, neurological issues, infertility and developmental harm. "Chemicals of concern" that plastics leach into the environment are associated with health risks like cancers and metabolic disorders.

Children stand in shallow water near some small boats, surrounded by floating plastic debris.
A harbor in Semporna, Malaysia choked with plastic debris. Plastic waste can leach toxic chemicals into the environment that are linked to a wide range of health risks. Photo by Christian Loader/Alamy

Microplastics can also absorb other harmful pollutants, such as pesticides and industrial chemicals, that cause disease and other issues in animals. Once in the environment, microplastics accumulate across the food web and have already been detected in 1,300 different species.

Larger plastic debris can entangle animals or injure them when it's ingested. It can also act as a vessel to transport non-native or potentially invasive species and pathogens, helping them to cross ecosystems and establish new colonies.

Plastic pollution has economic costs

Estimates suggest that plastic pollution causes about $75 billion per year in environmental damages, with $13 billion of this tied to marine ecosystems. For example, plastic pollution can deplete fish stocks and impact coastal tourism by littering popular beaches. It can damage infrastructure like urban drainage systems. It can even de-operationalize or sink ships by entangling propellers or clogging water intake systems responsible for cooling their engines. Plastics are also responsible for over $1.5 trillion in health-related economic losses per year.

Plastics' impacts are unequal

Plastic processing, manufacturing and waste treatment facilities are often sited in or near marginalized and low-income communities, whose residents are disproportionally impacted by plastic pollution and its dangerous health effects. They also have fewer resources to relocate or respond to it. The impacts are especially severe in developing economies across sub-Saharan Africa and southern and southeast Asia, where plastic pollution is most prevalent, and in poor communities in industrialized countries.

The ocean and rivers hold cultural and social value in many societies. Pollution that enters these waterways can affect cherished species, such as whales, turtles and manta rays, as well as traditional fishing practices, livelihoods, community gatherings and ceremonies.

How Can We Prevent Plastic Pollution?

Ending plastic pollution will take more than swapping out single-use products for reusable ones, though that's a good start. To truly tackle the problem, we will need to transform the interconnected systems that design, produce, consume and manage plastics. This requires shifting incentives, subsidies and policies as well as materials and infrastructure.

With ambitious, coordinated policy and follow-through, it is possible for some regions to eliminate 97% of mismanaged plastic waste by 2050. These measures will come at a cost and will require efforts to better manage plastic throughout the entire value chain — both upstream (from fossil fuel extraction through to use) and downstream (once a product has been discarded).

Upstream solutions

Upstream interventions aim to reduce plastic pollution by limiting production and use in the first place.

Part of the answer is reducing demand, both by shifting away from single-use packaging and by emphasizing durability (especially for products that need to last a long time, like airplane parts). But that won't be possible without tamping down supply: As long as plastics are abundant and cheap, it will disincentivize the use of alternative or recycled materials.

Policy measures are a key tool governments can use to reduce supply and demand, bring transparency to supply chains, and encourage a more circular plastics economy where possible. These could include:

  • Ending fossil fuel subsidies: Since 99% of plastics are made from fossil fuels, reducing or eliminating fossil fuel subsidies could raise costs and help disincentivize virgin plastic production.
  • Plastic bans or restrictions: Eliminating unnecessary plastic is essential. At least 127 countries have implemented plastic bag bans or restrictions to date. These have been shown to limit, though not eliminate, relevant waste. For example, the U.K.'s charge on single-use carrier bags lowered their use in major retailers by 98%.
  • Disclosure requirements: Requiring companies to disclose the polymers and additives they use before products are released into the marketplace can help assess and control plastics' health and environmental impacts. Governments can also mandate that companies disclose the volumes and types of plastics they use and the waste generated.
  • Labeling: Plastic labeling is already a common practice around the globe. However, labels are often criticized for misinforming consumers about recyclability. Standardized regional labeling systems with clear instructions on responsible disposal could help reduce confusion.
  • Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): EPR policies make plastic producers responsible for their products across the entire lifecycle, from production to disposal. This compels companies to minimize or avoid creating plastic waste and to better manage the waste they do generate. For example, the Republic of Korea enacted mandatory EPR requirements in 2016 for producers and importers that exceed certain thresholds of annual sales or packaging volume. Both public and private entities should inventory their plastic consumption and any waste they produce.
  • Incentives and investment frameworks: Investments in essential services, such as clean drinking water systems, can reduce demand for plastic products like single-use water bottles. This is especially important in communities with limited waste management infrastructure. Academia and the private sector can play a key role in researching and developing alternative materials and feedstocks. Governments and financial institutions can also leverage financial tools and market solutions to encourage reductions in plastic use and waste. Plastic credits are one example, though these are still in their infancy and their effectiveness is understudied.
People picking up trash on a beach.
Community clean-ups can help clear plastic pollution and prevent it from entering the ocean, but are not a substitute for systemic solutions to reduce plastic use and waste. Photo by Fitria Nuraini/Shutterstock

Downstream solutions

Downstream interventions aim to responsibly manage plastic waste after use so that it doesn't end up in the environment or human bodies. 

Most important is ensuring that waste is collected, sorted and managed as sustainably as possible. However, there is no perfect solution for managing pollution at any stage of the plastic lifecycle. The most common methods today include landfilling, recycling, incineration, pyrolysis and bioremediation. But despite most countries having some form of recycling policy, less than 10% of plastic waste is currently recycled, and both mechanical and chemical recycling contribute their own forms of pollution. 

Improving waste management will require significant investment and infrastructure development to meet the needs of unserved and underserved communities, including the use of sanitary and secure landfill facilities where necessary.

Additional downstream solutions include:

  • Deposit and return schemes: Deposit schemes provide a small financial incentive to return a product to a specific collection point, helping to reduce litter and encourage pickup. Across Europe, deposit schemes have seen 85% of covered products returned on average, with Germany the highest at 95%.
  • Recognizing the informal recycling sector: Informal workers like waste pickers are crucial in the fight against plastic waste — especially in developing countries, where comprehensive waste management is often lacking. It's estimated that over 15 million people globally earn a living this way. However, most are highly vulnerable and marginalized from mainstream society. Some are even criminalized for their work. Policies to assess the size of the informal workforce and its contributions to waste management could help advocate for further support and protection.
  • Reuse and refill systems: Methods to encourage reusable and refillable products are becoming more popular. The Living Landscape of Reusable Packaging Solutions showcases over 800 different types of reusable packaging already in use. Encouraging these systems can help limit reliance on single-use products.
  • Targeted litter removal: Community-based cleanups are not a substitute for systemic waste solutions, but they can help. For example, the Marine Conservation Society's annual Great British Beach Clean in 2024 recorded over 764,000 pieces of litter collected, with a nearly 10% increase in plastic items from 2023.

New and innovative collection technologies are also being developed to remove plastic debris from rivers and the ocean. But we can't solve the problem without reducing demand and managing waste on land — before it washes into the sea.

What Is the Global Plastics Treaty?

While national and local solutions are central to tackling plastic pollution, international cooperation is also critical. This is because, without global policy coherence, plastic waste and trade may simply be redirected.

For example, China banned plastic waste imports (which mainly come from developed countries) in 2017. This redirected waste to other countries, especially in southeast Asia. Similarly, reducing plastic production in one country may lead to outsourcing that production elsewhere.

In 2022, 175 countries agreed to develop an international instrument to end plastic pollution, commonly known as the "Global Plastics Treaty." This is meant to include both legally binding and voluntary approaches to address the full lifecycle of plastic and halt plastic pollution on a global scale.

A statute called "The Thinker's Burden" includes a reimagining of Rodin's "The Thinker" sitting on top of Mother Earth surrounded by plastic waste.
Artist and activist Benjamin Von Wong and SLS Illusions constructed “The Thinker’s Burden” in Geneva’s Place des Nations, which hosted negotiations for the Global Plastics Treaty. The 6-meter-tall installation reimagines Rodin’s “The Thinker,” holding a plastic bottle and cradling a baby while sitting on top of Mother Earth, surrounded by a mountain of plastic waste. Photo by Von Wong Productions.

Where Does the Plastics Treaty Stand Today?

There have been six intergovernmental negotiating sessions on the Global Plastics Treaty so far. The most recent, which took place in August 2025 in Geneva, ended in deadlock. This was expected to be the final round of negotiations, leaving the treaty's future uncertain.

Key sticking points in the treaty negotiations have included:

  • Regulating plastic production: The treaty is considering rules to control how much plastic is made, aiming to match production with actual global needs and setting deadlines to phase-out single-use plastic where appropriate. Clear directions to cap, reduce or eliminate certain types of plastic production — especially single-use — will be critical to eliminating pollution throughout the plastic lifecycle. Negotiations have been split between parties in favor of regulating and capping production and those that want the treaty to focus on recycling and downstream waste management.
  • Regulating chemicals used in production: Some proposals have called for phasing out or monitoring potentially harmful chemicals used in both virgin and recycled plastics. However, countries have so far failed to compromise on this front. Transparency about which chemical additives plastics contain is critical to understanding and responding to their human and environmental impacts.
  • Globally vs. nationally determined implementation: Negotiators haven't agreed on which measures should be regulated at the global and country levels. There's been contention over setting targets at various stages of the plastic value chain — especially with respect to nationally differentiated responses and economies at different stages of development.
  • Clarifying the overall scope of pollution to be managed: Consensus is needed on whether the treaty should include plastic pollution in the high seas — and the relationship with existing international agreements, such as the Basel Convention (which was amended in 2019 to cover transboundary plastic waste).
  • Agreement on funding mechanisms: Negotiators must define how much finance is required to implement the treaty and who will pay, including countries and industries. Finance is needed to address existing plastic pollution, waste management, and the prevalence of waste burning that poses health and environmental threats in places without adequate waste infrastructure.
  • Accounting for impacts on people and nature: Our understanding of plastics' impacts on people, nature and the climate is still evolving. There is a proposal for a standalone article on health that highlights concerns about these risks.

The treaty negotiations have been heavily influenced by two key country groups. The High Ambition Coalition to End Plastic Pollution includes 71 countries, co-chaired by Rwanda and Norway, calling for ambitious outcomes and to end plastic pollution by 2040. In contrast, a group that includes key petrostates and plastic producers like Saudi Arabia, Iran and Russia — known as the "like-minded countries" — want to exclude implications for plastic suppliers and narrow the mandate of the treaty to waste management.

In August 2025, the "like-minded countries" and United States successfully pushed to exclude articles on global production caps and health from the draft treaty text, which was ultimately not adopted.

Negotiations are also attended and influenced by a diverse range of observers and interest groups, including industry lobbyists (which at the last negotiating session outnumbered any country delegation), civil society, intergovernmental organizations and others.

What's Next for Plastics?

Negotiations on the Global Plastics Treaty offered a pivotal opportunity to redefine the world's relationship with plastic. But they ended in gridlock and disappointment.

Yet the talks were not necessarily fruitless. Many countries remain committed to eliminating pollution across the plastic lifecycle, and the hard work of these delegations has created a foundation for greater ambition and cooperation moving forward. While it's critical that the negotiations continue, there are many steps countries can take in the meantime to reduce plastic production and consumption and combat pollution. With the future of the Global Plastics Treaty uncertain, these efforts are more important than ever.

The world must keep working to change the direction of global plastic pollution and safeguard our shared global ecosystems. For the health of current and future generations, there can be no other choice.

Editor's note: This article was originally published in August 2025. It was updated in September 2025 to reflect the latest status of the Global Plastics Treaty negotiations and expand on potential solutions outside the treaty.