Antigua and Barbuda

One of the world's smallest nations (approximately 440 sq km), Antigua and Barbuda includes a number of small islands and cays, characterized by low-lying coral and limestone formations. [1] Large bank reefs, patch reefs, and fringing reefs cover about 180 sq km. Antigua has a deeply indented coastline surrounded by reefs except on parts of the west and south coasts. On Barbuda, reefs are found along most of the coast, and an extensive algal ridge runs along the east coast. [2]

According to the Reefs at Risk analysis, all of Antigua and Barbuda's reefs are threatened by human activities. The most pervasive threat is overfishing, threatening all reefs. Coastal development threatens over 70 percent, while marine based pollution and sedimentation each threaten about 30 percent of the reefs. Turbidity of inshore water and elevated algal cover are linked to impacts of coastal development, with sedimentation being a major influence on reef condition. [3] Recreational diving and marine resource extraction are also having an adverse impact on reefs.

Hurricanes Hugo (1989) and Luis and Marilyn (1995) caused extensive damage to reefs on the south and southeast coasts of Antigua, particularly to branching corals on shallow reefs. [4] Other natural disturbance has also come from the last El Niño event, during which reefs suffered mild bleaching. [5]

Reef fish, conch, and lobster, which inhabit the relatively extensive island shelf, support the demersal or reef-based fisheries on both islands. The Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), queen (pink) conch (Strombus gigas), and reef-slope fish (parrotfish, snapper, hind, etc.) are the major commercial fishery resources. Reef fish populations have declined significantly in recent years because of natural disasters and over-fishing, indicated by a decrease in the size of landed fish and a proliferation of algae on many reefs. [6]

The established MPAs are Diamond Reef (also known as Salt Fish Tail) and Palaster Reef (both Marine National Parks, established 1973), and Cades Bay Marine Reserve. [7] Cades Bay, the most recent (established in 1999), includes beaches, reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves. [8]

[1] P. Hoetjes et al., "Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean," in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002 . C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p. 325

[2] A.F. Smith, C.S. Rogers, and C. Bouchon. 1999. "Status of Western Atlantic Coral Reefs in the Lesser Antilles." Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef Symposium, pp 351-356

[3] A.H. Smith et al., "Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean," in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 . C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000), p. 319

[4] A. Smith et al., "Status of coral reefs in the Lesser Antilles, Western Atlantic," in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 1998 . C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 1998), p. 140

[5] A.H. Smith et al., "Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean," in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 . C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000), p. 319

[6] A.H. Smith et al., "Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean," in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 . C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000), p. 322

[7] M. Spalding et al., World Atlas of Coral Reefs (Berkeley, California: University of California Press and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center, 2001), p. 166

[8] A.H. Smith et al., "Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean," in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 . C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000), p. 324