On the continental shelf of the Southern Caribbean, reef development is severely inhibited by upwelling and by freshwater and sediment runoff. [128] The best developed and more diverse coral reefs are found around the chain of islands and archipelagos running parallel to the continental coast: Curaçao and Bonaire (under the jurisdiction of the Netherlands) and the Venezuelan island systems of Islas las Aves, Islas los Roques, La Orchilla, and La Blanquilla. Reef development around Trinidad is slight, largely due to the influence of the Orinoco River, which delivers huge volumes of sediment-laden fresh water. [129]

This analysis did not identify any reefs around the offshore Venezuelan islands as threatened, due to low population pressure and little development. However, fishing and a growing tourism industry represent potential threats. [130] In contrast, human activities, particularly artisanal fishing, are estimated to threaten all the reefs around the offshore islands of Aruba and Tobago. Marine-based pollution is also a threat on Curaçao and Aruba, where large oil refineries have been operating since the early 1920s. The threat from coastal development on Bonaire comes mainly from the direct and indirect impacts of increasing dive tourism. [131]

The Bonaire Marine Park is a model for reef protection. Established in 1979 and declared a national park in 1999, it is protected under island legislation and has been under continuously active management since 1991. (See Box 3: Marine protected areas.) Reefs along the continental Venezuelan coast are subject to pressure from overfishing, coastal development, and some port facilities. Deforestation has increased sediment loads to coastal waters, [132] and all reefs along the continental coast were identified as under high threat from land-based sources. Although most Venezuelan coastal coral reefs are located within national parks with protective regulations, inadequate staffing and logistical and financial capacity prevent full enforcement. [133]

References

128 Spalding et al. (2001), p. 168.

129 J. Garzón-Ferreira et al., "Status of Coral Reefs in Southern Tropical America," in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p. 326.

130 E. Weil, "The Corals and Coral Reefs of Venezuela," in Latin American Coral Reefs. J. Cortés, ed. (Amsterdam: Elsevier Press, 2003), p. 321.

131 UNESCO (1998), p. 144.

132 Weil (2003), p. 320.

133 Ibid.