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According to the Reefs at Risk analysis, about half the 40 sq km of reefs around the Netherlands Antilles North are threatened by human activities. Coastal development was estimated as threatening about 40 percent of reefs, marine-based pollution 35 percent, overfishing nearly 30 percent and sedimentation about a quarter.
St. Maarten, administered by the Netherlands, is located at the southern end of the island of St. Martin. The island sits on the Anguilla Bank with spur and groove structures concentrated on the east and southeastern part of the island from 8 to 18 m. [1]
In St. Maarten the paucity of large piscivores such as groupers and snappers is indicative of overfishing. [2] Rapid population growth and a dramatic expansion of tourism have resulted in major infrastructure development without any physical planning strategy. A recent study indicated that marine habitats, including reefs on the west and south coasts, are seriously threatened by pollution, devegetation, siltation, and eutrophication from sewage input and the very high level of recreational boating. [3] South coast reefs also suffer from anchor damage. Large areas of the island have been deforested by extensive livestock grazing and past agriculture. Erosion resulting from the combined causes of deforestation, overgrazing, and other deleterious land-use practices remains serious. [4]
The St. Maarten Marine Park has been actively managed by the St. Maarten Nature Foundation since 1997, but as of 2004 the island legislation giving the park legal status is not in place. The proposed Marine Park encompasses the entire coast of St. Maarten.
St. Eustatius is a volcanic island on the same submerged volcanic platform as St. Kitts and Nevis. The coasts are dominated by steep cliffs and sandy beaches are rare. On the leeward side, offshore coral reef begins at approximately 25 m deep with complex spur and groove formations extending to about 60 m deep. Steep buttresses in the north have approximately 80 percent coral cover with 35 different species. There is a fringing reef on the exposed Atlantic side. [5]
In St. Eustatius the paucity of large piscivores such as groupers and snappers is indicative of overfishing. [6] There is little shoreline development, except for an oil trans-shipment port on the northwestern coast and some development on the mid-leeward coast. [7] Large areas of the island have been deforested by extensive livestock grazing and past agriculture. Erosion resulting from the combined causes of deforestation, overgrazing and other deleterious land-use practices remains serious. [8]
Protected under island legislation, St. Eustatius Marine Park, established in 1996, has been actively managed since 1998; it encompasses all waters surrounding St. Eustatius out to a depth of 30 m and the park contains two no-take zones to protect and replenish fish stocks. [9] Visitors pay a small user fee that helps to offset management costs. [10]
Located in the northern part of the Eastern Caribbean arc, Saba is a volcanic island with steep slopes above and below water, underwater lava flows, and hot springs. Sponges cover the sheer walls, and the only “true” coral reefs are on the east side of the island. [11] The Saba Bank is a large sunken atoll southwest of Saba. There is no land and no habitation, but large parts of it lie at depths of 10 to 20 m and have extensive reef development. Little is known about the reefs of the Saba Bank, but its total reef area has been estimated to be about 150 sq km. [12]
Saba’s steep topography limits coastal development, and adverse human impacts are apparently minimal, but it is recognized that there is a potential for degradation resulting from increased visitation. Fishing pressure appears to be limited but, in the past, the Saba Bank was heavily fished by non-Saban fishermen [13] resulting in a paucity of large groupers and snappers. Coastguard patrols effectively stopped these practices, and the present fishing activity by Sabans is mainly lobster fishery (90 percent of the catches), which appears to be sustainable.
Saba is a popular dive destination, and all reefs down to 60 m are protected by the Saba Marine Park, established in 1987. The Park generates funds through user fees, donations, souvenir sales, grant writing, and operation of the hyperbaric chamber. Most of the Park’s budget is generated through diving fees. All visiting divers to the Park pay a use fee of US$3 per dive. Visiting yachts pay US$3 per person, or 15 cents per ton for larger boats, and can stay for up to a week.
[1] P. Hoetjes et al., “Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p. 320
[2] A.O. Debrot and J. Sybesma, “The Netherlands Antilles” in Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol 1 Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press, 2000), p. 598
[3] H. Nijkamp, R. Djohani, E. Meesters. 1995. The marine environment of St. Maarten . Report by AID ENVIRONMENT to Dienst VROM, St. Maarten. 24 pp
[4] A.O. Debrot and J. Sybesma, “The Netherlands Antilles” in Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol 1 Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press, 2000), p. 598
[5] P. Hoetjes et al., “Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p. 329
[6] A.O. Debrot and J. Sybesma, “The Netherlands Antilles” in Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol 1 Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press, 2000), p. 598
[7] P. Hoetjes et al., “Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p.329
[8] A.O. Debrot and J. Sybesma, “The Netherlands Antilles” in Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol 1 Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press, 2000), p. 598
[9] P. Hoetjes et al., “Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p. 335
[10] M. Spalding et al., World Atlas of Coral Reefs (Berkeley, California: University of California Press and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center, 2001), p. 161
[11] P. Hoetjes et al., “Status of coral reefs in the eastern Caribbean: The OECS, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, The Netherlands Antilles and the French Caribbean,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p. 329
[12] A.O. Debrot and J. Sybesma, “The Netherlands Antilles” in Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol 1 Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press, 2000), p. 598
[13] A.O. Debrot and J. Sybesma, “The Netherlands Antilles” in Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol 1 Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press, 2000), p. 598