Jamaica

Jamaica, located in the center of the Caribbean Sea, is the third largest island in the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). It has a highland interior, with peaks and plateau running the length of the island, surrounded by flat coastal plains. Fringing reefs occur on a narrow 1- to 2-km shelf along most of the north coast, and also grow sporadically on the south coast on a much broader shelf 20 km wide. In addition, reefs and corals can be found on the neighboring banks of the Pedro Cays, 70 km to the south, and the Morant Cays, 50 km to the southwest. Jamaica’s reefs are among the best studied in the world, and they may also be the longest directly observed submarine ecosystem, with data available since the 1950s. [1]

The Reefs at Risk analysis shows that in Jamaican waters overfishing pressure affects approximately two-thirds of reefs, watershed-based sources threaten over 60 percent of the reefs, while coastal development threatens over half, and marine-based sources threaten over 30 percent. Limited employment opportunities densely populated coastal zones, and easy access to the narrow shelf areas mean that the reef resources have been heavily used to provide a livelihood and sustenance. Agriculture is one of the primary economic activities of the country, and land clearing and poor agricultural practices have led to increased erosion; near the mouths of rivers, sedimentation from soil erosion is damaging reefs. [2] Mass tourism has also brought swelling populations and unmanaged development to the coastal zone.

Overfishing in Jamaican waters can be traced back over 100 years, with the capture not only of large predators, but also most of the herbivorous, algal-grazing fish. This situation reduced the resilience of the reef ecosystem, and it became highly dependent on a single species, the long-spined sea urchin, to keep algal levels down. The reefs were smashed by Hurricane Allen in 1980, but began slowly to recover - the grazing urchins playing a critical role in keeping down the algae so new corals could settle. Then in 1983 the urchins were all killed by a disease. With overfishing still rampant there were no major grazers left. The already-established corals could survive, but algal levels began to rise. Then in 1988 Hurricane Gilbert struck the island, once again devastating the corals. At this point the algae flourished, perhaps helped by the high levels of nutrient pollution in the water, and clearly benefiting from the lack of any grazers. The final outcome was the virtual replacement of the coral reefs by algal ecosystems in what has been described as a “phase shift”. Live coral cover declined from 52 percent to 3 percent, and fleshy algae cover increased from 4 percent to 92 percent. The causes were the combined stresses; overfishing, disease, hurricanes/storms, and perhaps nutrient pollution. [3]

Jamaica’s coral reefs continue to suffer from a combination of human-induced and natural stresses, but there are encouraging signs, with recent surveys indicating some sites with relatively high coral cover and increasing numbers of coral recruits. Whether or not this development signals a general recovery of Jamaica’s reefs remains to be seen. The reefs are now even less able to provide important services to fisheries, tourism, and coastal protection. [4] Huge growth in the tourism industry has generated some alternative employment opportunities but not enough to reduce fishing pressure. Fishing is one of the few job opportunities/options for a large segment of the coastal population. Jamaica’s reef fishery is severely overfished, with all large species and most predators absent or very scarce, leaving the main target species as small parrotfish and surgeonfish. [5]

Other natural disturbances in addition to the impact from hurricanes mentioned above include coral bleaching and disease. Mass bleaching took place in Jamaica during 1987, 1989, and 1990, with considerable mortality. Widespread bleaching was also recorded in 1998. [6]

National Protected Areas system, an integrated system of parks and marine protected areas, has been initiated by the National Environmental Planning Agency (NEPA), which has responsibility for taking “such steps as are necessary for the effective management of the physical environment of Jamaica so as to ensure the conservation, protection, and proper use of its natural resources.” Unfortunately, the coral reefs around Jamaica continue to suffer from a lack of effective management, [7] and most of the declared and proposed MPAs remain essentially “paper parks.” [8]

[1] M. Vierros, ” Jamaica,” in Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol 1 Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press, 2000), p. 562.

[2] M. Vierros, ” Jamaica,” in Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol 1 Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier Press, 2000), p. 567

[3] T.P. Hughes. 1994. “Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef.” Science 265:1547-1551

[4] J. Woodley et al., “Status of Coral Reefs in the Northern Caribbean and Western Atlantic,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000), p. 261

[5] J. Woodley et al., “Status of Coral Reefs in the Northern Caribbean and Western Atlantic,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000), p. 261

[6] J. Woodley et al., “Status of Coral Reefs in the Northern Caribbean and Western Atlantic,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 . C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000), p. 265

[7] D. Linton et al., “Status of Coral Reefs in the Northern Caribbean and Atlantic Node of the GCRMN,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p. 296

[8] D. Linton et al., “Status of Coral Reefs in the Northern Caribbean and Atlantic Node of the GCRMN,” in Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. C. Wilkinson, ed. (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2002), p. 290